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Routledge is a global publisher of academic books, journals and online resources in the humanities and social sciences.
(born 1909) Greek American director whose career was darkened by his willingness to testify before the House Committee on Un-American Activities. This sparked protests even when he was awarded a lifetime achievement award at the 1999 Oscars. Kazan, a cofounder of Actor’s Studio and “method acting,” drew superb performances from Marlon Brando (A Streetcar Named Desire, 1951; Viva Zapata!, 1952; and their masterwork, the tense, naturalistic On the Waterfront, 1954), James Dean (East of Eden, 1955) and others.
While his films pioneered adult representations of sexuality; his “social-message” dramas (e.g. Gentlemen’s Agreement, 1947 on anti-Semitism) have not aged as well. Kazan also worked extensively in theater before devoting himself to writing and more personal films.
Industry:Culture
(1909 – 1998) A long-time Republican Party US senator from Arizona (1952–64; 1968–86) and failed presidential candidate, Goldwater is widely considered the founder—and certainly the galvanizer and emblem—of the postwar conservative political movement in the United States.
Although Goldwater had few legislative accomplishments as a senator and suffered a landslide defeat in the 1964 presidential election against Lyndon B. Johnson, his outspoken and unabashed conservative views were a kernel around which the conservative movement was rebuilt, beginning in the 1950s, in the wake of the New Deal and against the current of the postwar liberal consensus. Goldwater gave the conservative movement one of its rallying cries in his speech to the 1964 Republican convention in San Francisco, CA, stating “Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice” and “moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue.” Goldwater’s campaign brought many conservatives into the political arena, including Ronald Reagan. whose victory in 1980 is often considered the flowering of ideological seeds that were planted in the 1964 campaign. Goldwater’s philosophy came down to two core principles: a fundamentally libertarian opposition to the growth of federal programs at home and an adamant and aggressive opposition to Russia abroad. Both principles led his opponents to brand him “extreme,” particularly during the 1964 campaign in which Gold-water suggested making Social Security voluntary and using low-level nuclear blasts to defoliate Vietnam. As a senator, Goldwater voted against the 1964 Civil Rights Act. These positions led to Goldwater’s 1964 defeat—in which he received less than 40 percent of the popular vote and won only in Arizona and five Southern states—and his acolytes, while sharing his principles, moved away from his specific positions.
At the end of his career, Goldwater’s libertarian attitudes sometimes put him at odds with the conservative movement, as he felt uncomfortable with the religious right and supported homosexual rights.
Industry:Culture
(1910 – 1961) Finnish-born architect, son of Eliel Saarinen. His poetic buildings grace and transform monumental spaces from the soaring TWA terminal at JFK airport in New York City, NY and Dulles airport near Washington, DC (both 1962) to the lofty poetry of the Jefferson National Purchase Arch in St. Louis, MO (1962–4). He also created American embassies abroad and contributed to college campus architecture at Yale and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Industry:Culture
(1910 – 1976) A country blues artist with a deep, dark, guttural voice, Howlin’ Wolf worked the farms and juke joints of Arkansas and Mississippi from the 1920s through the 1940s.
Influenced by Jimmie Rodgers and Charley Patton, Wolf moved to West Memphis, Arkansas, after the Second World War where he formed his own band and became a popular DJ on KWEM. In 1952 he moved to Chicago, IL where he recorded for Chess Records and became a key figure in the electric blues scene, inspiring 1960s rock bands like the Grateful Dead and Rolling Stones.
Industry:Culture
(1910 – 1981) Lyrical composer who worked in various genres, winning Pulitzer Prizes for his opera Vanessa (1958) as well as his “Second Piano Concerto” (1962). While his work is demanding and complex, it has also found favor with a wider public, especially his “Adagio.”
Industry:Culture
(born 1910); d.1987 Tactician and organizer behind many of the successes of the Civil Rights movement.
In the 1940s, Rustin helped organize CORE and laid the groundwork for the freedom rides. Testing the Supreme Court decision outlawing interstate travel on a “journey of reconciliation,” he was arrested in North Carolina and spent thirty days on a chain gang.
In the 1950s, Rustin assisted Martin Luther King, Jr. during the Montgomery Bus Boycott, bringing to the movement his experience of using non-violent action learned from his Quakerism and work with Gandhi. Also, Rustin organized the 1963 March on Washington, but lost his leadership role as the movement turned away from non-violence towards Black Power. Nevertheless he continued his civil-rights work, leading a campaign against de facto school segregation in New York City, and supported other causes, including gay rights, aid to refugees, rights for workers and opposition to apartheid in South Africa.
Industry:Culture
(born 1911) US president from 1981 to 1989. A second-tier Hollywood leading man, Ronald Reagan shifted from New Deal Democrat to anti-communist conservative while serving as president of the Screen Actors Guild during the McCarthy era. His first taste of political success came in 1964 when he made the most financially successful campaign commercial for Barry Goldwater. After the electoral debacle, Reagan replaced Goldwater as the voice of the Republican Party right wing.
In 1966 he was elected governor of California, running against Berkeley student radicals, civilrights militants and anti-Vietnam protesters. Over the next decade, Reagan used his base in California to build what became known as the New Right, a coalition of free-market libertarians, traditionalists and ideological anti-communists, augmented by evangelical Christians, neoconservative intellectuals and those voters, called Reagan Democrats, increasingly estranged from liberalism, which seemed less patriotic, more culturally deviant and more inclusive.
In the late 1970s, with stagflation and hostages dominating the news, Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter for the presidency. Reagan’s victory seemed to mark a conservative ascendancy—the Reagan Revolution—with international parallels, for example Margaret Thatcher in Britain. Reagan, supported by conservative Democrats, pushed through a 25 percent tax cut, significant cuts in social welfare spending, a host of de-regulatory measures and enormous increases in the military budget. He also introduced a new antiunion use of “replacement” workers, or scabs, in breaking the air-traffic controllers’ strike of 1981.
In foreign policy he countered calls for a nuclear freeze with his Strategic Defense Initiative, or Star Wars, which sought a costly hi-tech missile defense system. Reagan also funded a variety of efforts to combat left-wing governments in Nicaragua, Grenada and Afghanistan, and radical movements in El Salvador and Angola. Yet, he would later astonish his hawkish advisors by exploring radical reductions in nuclear missiles with Mikhail Gorbachev in 1986.
In 1984, with the economy reviving, Reagan romped over Walter Mondale, carrying forty-nine states. But, soon after, the Iran-Contra scandal broke, revealing that his administration had exchanged missiles for the promise of help with hostages from Iran and, in addition, had used profits from the sales to illegally fund the anti-Sandinista Contras in Nicaragua. But with no “smoking gun,” Reagan himself escaped indictment.
Reagan’s legacy is part of the ongoing ideological war—s supporters claim that he restored US economic prosperity and won the Cold War. Critics note that Reaganomics: fueled massive federal deficits and a burdensome national debt; violated conservative fiscal commitments to balanced budgets in support of dubious “supply-side” notions; ravaged the social welfare safety net; turned the clock back to the nineteenth century with his Supreme Court appointments; and encouraged religious dogmatism, racial intolerance and an “era of greed.”
Industry:Culture
(1911 – 1978) As a US senator from Minnesota (1948–65 and 1970–8), Humphrey was a key supporter of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. While serving as vice-president under Lyndon B. Johnson (1965–9), he won a bitter fight for the 1968 Democratic presidential nomination that saw the party sharply divided over US involvement in the Vietnam War.
Against a backdrop of violent clashes between antiwar protesters and police in the streets, Humphrey was steadfast in his support for the Johnson administration’s Vietnam policy earning him a lasting reputation for loyalty to the establishment.
Industry:Culture
(1911 – 1979) Poet and translator of two places (“here” and “elsewhere”) and two directions (south, at first Key West, Brazil; then north—Nova Scotia, Harvard, Maine), Bishop inhabited each gratefully without longing. Things ordinary (a typewriter, four quarts of motor oil) and extraordinary (an enormous fish, a moose, a dog so closely shaved it’s “pink”) in her verse, prose poems and short fiction challenge fresh perceptions.
Distant friend (of poets Marianne Moore, Robert Lowell and Randall Jarrell), committed formalist and expatriate lesbian, Bishop’s necessary correspondence distills the self her “one art” required her to lose.
Industry:Culture
(1911 – 1988) Powerful playwright whose works explored and exploded myths of the South. His highly personal and poetic dramas are imbued with sensuality guilt, decay illusion and the power of love. Works such as The Glass Menagerie (1945), the Pulitzer Prizewinning A Streetcar named Desire (1947) and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (l954) have become staples of global as well as American theater (see Almodovar’s All About My Mother, 1999). These, and other plays, have also been made into powerful movie and television presentations, bringing Williams’ images and speeches into a wider public realm of referēce. Williams’ life and work have also been influential in defining gay expression in contemporary America.
Industry:Culture
